ื”ืื™ื“ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื” ืฉืžืขืฆื‘ืช ืืช ืขื•ืœืžื ื•: ืžื”ื• ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื? (ืžื‘ื•ื ืงืฆืจืฆืจ)

ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ื”ื•ื ืื—ืช ื”ืชืคื™ืกื•ืช ื”ืขื™ืงืจื™ื•ืช ื‘ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ื” ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืช ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช ืฉืขื™ืฆื‘ื” ื‘ืžื™ื“ื” ืจื‘ื” ืืช ื”ืขื•ืœื ื‘ืžืื•ืช ื”ืฉื ื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื•ืช. ืขืจื›ื™ ื”ืœื™ื‘ื” ืฉืœ ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ื”ื ื‘ื“ืจืš ื›ืœืœย  ื—ื•ืคืฉ ื”ืคืจื˜ ื•ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ,ย ืืœื ืฉื”ื•ื’ื™ื ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ืฉื•ื ื™ื ื™ื”ื™ื• ื—ืœื•ืงื™ื ื‘ืžืขืจื›ืช ื”ื™ื—ืกื™ื ื‘ื ื™ื”ื. ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ืงืจื•ื‘ ืžืื•ื“ ืœื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื”, ืงืคื™ื˜ืœื™ื–ื, ื—ื•ืคืฉ ื“ืช ื•ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื“ื. ื”ื•ื’ื™ื ื›ื’'ื•ืŸ ืœื•ืง (1632-1704) ืื• ื’'ื•ืŸ ืกื˜ื™ื•ืืจื˜ ืžื™ืœ (1808-1873) ื ื—ืฉื‘ื™ื ืœืื‘ื•ืช ื”ืžื™ื™ืกื“ื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ืฉืฆืžื— ืจืืฉื™ืช ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ื” ื•ื”ืžืฉื™ืš ื‘ืืจื”"ื‘.

ืžืงื•ืจื•ืช ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื

ืฉื•ืจืฉื™ื• ืฉืœ ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ื ืขื•ืฆื™ื ืขืžื•ืง ื‘ืžื”ืคื›ื•ืช ืฉืขื‘ืจื• ืขืœ ืื™ืจื•ืคื” ื‘ืขืช ื”ื—ื“ืฉื”, ืชืงื•ืคืช ื”ืจื ืกื ืก ื•ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ื”ื•ืžื ื™ื–ื ืฉืฆืžื—ื• ื‘ื™ื‘ืฉืช ื”ื—ืœ ืžื”ืžืื” ื”-16.

ื•ืื›ืŸ ื™ืฉื ื• ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื“ื™ื ื•ืช ืฉื ื˜ื• ืœืกื—ืจ ื—ื•ืคืฉื™ ื”ืžืืคืฉืจ ืชื ื•ืขื” ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ื•ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ืœื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื. ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ("ื”ืžื”ื•ืœืœืช") ืฉืœ ืฉื ืช 1688 ื‘ืื ื’ืœื™ื” ืžืกืžื ืช ืžื ืงื•ื“ืช ืžื‘ื˜ ื–ื• ืชืืจื™ืš ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื“ื•ืงื˜ืจื™ื ื” ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ืช. ืื™ืจื•ืข ื–ื” ืžื•ื“ื’ืฉ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ื”ืฆืœื—ืชื ืฉืœ ื™ื–ืžื™ื ื›ืžื• ืœื•ืจื“ ืฉืคื˜ืกื‘ืจื™ ื•ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ื’'ื•ืŸ ืœื•ืง, ืฉื—ื–ืจ ืœืื ื’ืœื™ื” ืœืื—ืจ 1688 ื•ื”ื—ืœื™ื˜ ืœืคืจืกื ืกื•ืคื™ืช ืืช ื™ืฆื™ืจืช ื”ืžื•ืคืช ืฉืœื•, "ืžืกื” ืขืœ ื”ืฉื›ืœ ื”ืื ื•ืฉื™", ื‘ื• ืกื™ืคืง ื’ื ื”ื’ื ื” ืขืœ ื”ืคืจื˜ ืขืœ ืžื ืช ืœื”ื‘ื˜ื™ื— ื—ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉื”ื ื”ืžืคืชื— ืœื“ื•ืงื˜ืจื™ื ื” ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ืกื˜ื™ืช.

ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™

ืœืžืจื•ืช ืžืงื•ืจื•ืชื™ื• ื”ื•ืชื™ืงื™ื, ืœืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ื”ื™ืกื˜ื•ืจื™ื” ืžื ื•ืกื—ืช ื”ืžืขื™ื“ื” ืขืœ ืชืคืงื™ื“ื• ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ื‘ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ืžืขืจื‘ื™ืช ื”ืžื•ื“ืจื ื™ืช. ืฉืชื™ ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื•ืช ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื•ืช, ื‘ืืžืจื™ืงื”ย (1776)ย ื•ื‘ืฆืจืคืช (1789), ืฉื™ื›ืœืœื• ื›ืžื” ืžื”ืจืขื™ื•ื ื•ืช ื”ืžืจื›ื–ื™ื™ื ื”ืขื•ืžื“ื™ื ืžืื—ื•ืจื™ ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื: ื“ืžื•ืงืจื˜ื™ื”, ืฉื•ื•ื™ื•ืŸ ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช, ื–ื›ื•ื™ื•ืช ืื“ื, ื”ื”ืคืจื“ื” ื‘ื™ืŸ ืžื“ื™ื ื” ืœื“ืช, ื—ื•ืคืฉ ื“ืช, ื•ื”ืชืžืงื“ื•ืช ื‘ื˜ื•ื‘ืช ื”ืคืจื˜.

ื”ืžืื” ื” -19 ื”ื™ื™ืชื” ืชืงื•ืคื” ืฉืœ ืขื™ื“ื•ืŸ ืื™ื ื˜ื ืกื™ื‘ื™ ืฉืœ ืขืจื›ื™ ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื, ืฉื ืืœืฆื” ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื”ืชื ืื™ื ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื™ื ื”ื—ื“ืฉื™ื ืฉื”ืฆื™ื‘ื” ื”ืžื”ืคื›ื” ื”ืชืขืฉื™ื™ืชื™ืช ื”ื—ืœื”.ย ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ื’'ื•ืŸ ืกื˜ื™ื•ืืจื˜ ืžื™ืœ ืชืจืžื• ืชืจื•ืžื” ืžื”ื•ืชื™ืช ืœืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื, ื•ื”ื‘ื™ืื• ืชืฉื•ืžืช ืœื‘ ืคื™ืœื•ืกื•ืคื™ืช ืœื ื•ืฉืื™ื ื›ืžื• ื—ื•ืคืฉ ื”ื‘ื™ื˜ื•ื™ ื•ื—ื™ืจื•ื™ื•ืช ืฉืœ ื ืฉื™ื ื•ืฉืœ ืื ืฉื™ื ืžืฉื•ืขื‘ื“ื™ื.ย ื”ืคืขื ื ื•ืœื“ื” ื’ื ื”ื“ื•ืงื˜ืจื™ื ื•ืช ื”ืกื•ืฆื™ืืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื•ืช ื•ื”ืงื•ืžื•ื ื™ืกื˜ื™ื•ืช ื‘ื”ืฉืคืขืชย ืงืจืœ ืžืจืงืกย ื•ื”ืื•ื˜ื•ืคื™ืกื˜ื™ื ื”ืฆืจืคืชื™ื, ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ื™ืชืจ.ย ื–ื” ืื™ืœืฅ ืืช ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ืกื˜ื™ื ืœืฉื›ืœืœ ืืช ื“ืขื•ืชื™ื”ื ื•ืœื”ืชืงืฉืจ ืœืงื‘ื•ืฆื•ืช ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ื•ืช ืžื’ื•ื‘ืฉื•ืช ื™ื•ืชืจ.

ื‘ืžืื” ื”ืขืฉืจื™ื ื ื•ืกื— ื”ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ืžื—ื“ืฉ ื›ื“ื™ ืœื”ืชืื™ื ืืช ืขืฆืžื• ืœืžืฆื‘ ื”ื›ืœื›ืœื™ ื”ืžืฉืชื ื” ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืžื—ื‘ืจื™ื ื›ืžื• ืœื•ื“ื•ื•ื™ื’ ืคื•ืŸ ืžื™ื–ืก ื•ื’'ื•ืŸ ืžื™ื™ื ืจื“ ืงื™ื™ื ืก. ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ื•ืื•ืจื— ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื”ืžืคื•ื–ืจ ืขืœ ื™ื“ื™ ืืจื”"ื‘ ื‘ืจื—ื‘ื™ ื”ืขื•ืœื ื ืชื ื• ืืคื•ื ื“ื—ืฃ ืžืจื›ื–ื™ ืœื”ืฆืœื—ืชื• ืฉืœ ืื•ืจื— ื—ื™ื™ื ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™, ืœืคื—ื•ืช ื‘ืคื•ืขืœ ืื ืœื ื‘ืื•ืคืŸ ืขืงืจื•ื ื™. ื‘ืขืฉื•ืจื™ื ื”ืื—ืจื•ื ื™ื ื ืขืฉื” ืฉื™ืžื•ืฉ ื‘ืœื™ื‘ืจืœื™ื–ื ื’ื ื›ื“ื™ ืœื˜ืคืœ ื‘ืกื•ื’ื™ื•ืช ื”ื“ื—ื•ืคื•ืช ืฉืœ ืžืฉื‘ืจ ื”ืงืคื™ื˜ืœื™ื–ื ื•ื”ื—ื‘ืจื” ื”ื’ืœื•ื‘ืœื™ืช.

ื•ื™ืงื˜ื•ืจ ืคืจื ืงืœ ื•ื”ื—ื™ืคื•ืฉ ืื—ืจ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื

ืžื” ื ื•ืชืŸ ืœื ื• ืืช ื”ื™ื›ื•ืœืช ืœื”ืชืžื•ื“ื“ ืขื ื”ืงืฉื™ื™ื ื”ื’ื“ื•ืœื™ื ื‘ื™ื•ืชืจ? ื”ืคืกื™ื›ื•ืœื•ื’ ื ื™ืฆื•ืœ ื”ืฉื•ืื” ื•ื™ืงื˜ื•ืจ ืคืจื ืงืœ ืขืœ ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื”ื—ื™ื™ื ื•ื”ื“ืจื›ื™ื ืœืžืฆื•ื ืื•ืชื”.

ื”ืืฉืœื™ื” ื”ื“ื™ื’ื™ื˜ืœื™ืช: ื›ื™ืฆื“ ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜ ืžืฉืžืฉ ื›ื›ืœื™ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื” ื•ืœื ืฉื—ืจื•ืจ

ื”ืื™ื ื˜ืจื ื˜ ื ืจืื” ื›ื›ืœื™ ืœืฉื—ืจื•ืจ, ืืš ื’ื ืžื ื’ื ื•ืŸ ืฉืœ ืฉืœื™ื˜ื”, ืžืขืงื‘ ื•ืชืขืžื•ืœื” ืฉืžืฆื™ืข ืคืชืจื•ื ื•ืช ื˜ื›ื ื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื™ื ืฉืžืกืชื™ืจื™ื ื‘ืขื™ื•ืช ื—ื‘ืจืชื™ื•ืช.

ืžื”ื• "ืื–ื•ืจ ื”ื”ืชืคืชื—ื•ืช ื”ืžืงื•ืจื‘ืช" ื•ืœืžื” ื–ื” ื—ืฉื•ื‘ ืœื ื•?

ื”ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ืื ื—ื ื• ืฆื•ืžื—ื™ื ื”ื•ื ื”ืžืงื•ื ื‘ื• ืขื•ื–ืจื™ื ืœื ื• ืœืขืฉื•ืช ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืื ื—ื ื• ืœื ื™ื›ื•ืœื™ื ืœื‘ื“

ืœืืŸ ืžื•ื‘ื™ืœ ืื•ืชื ื• ื”ืžืจื“ืฃ ืื—ืจ ื”ืื•ืฉืจ? ืกืจื˜ื•ืŸ ืื ื™ืžืฆื™ื” ืขืœ ืžืจื•ืฅ ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ื—ื™ื™ื

ืขืœ ืžืœื›ื“ื•ืช ื”ืขื›ื‘ืจื™ื ืฉืœ ื”ืžืจื“ืฃ ืื—ืจ ื”ืื•ืฉืจ (ืื• ืฉืžื ืจืง ืขื•ืฉืจ?)

ืœื”ืฆื‘ื™ืข ื‘ืจื—ื•ื‘: ืขืœ ื”ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืช ื•ืžื—ืื”

ืžื” ื”ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ืฉืœ ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ื ื•ื›ื— ืคื™ื–ื™ืช ื‘ืžื—ืื”? "ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ืงื” ืฉืœ ื ื•ื›ื—ื•ืช" ื•ื”ืจืขื™ื•ืŸ ืฉื”ื•ืคืขืช ื”ื’ื•ืฃ ื‘ืฆื™ื‘ื•ืจ ื”ื™ื ืืงื˜ ืคื•ืœื™ื˜ื™ ืขืžื•ืง, ื—ื•ืฆื” ืื™ื“ื™ืื•ืœื•ื’ื™ื•ืช, ื•ืืฃ ืžืกื•ื›ืŸ ืœืฉืœื˜ื•ืŸ.

ืจืœื•ื•ื ื˜ื™ ืœื›ื•ืœื: 20 ืฆื™ื˜ื•ื˜ื™ื ื™ืคื™ื ื•ื—ื›ืžื™ื ืขืœ ืžื•ื•ืช

ื”ืžื•ื•ืช ืžื’ื™ืข ืืœ ื›ื•ืœื, ืื– ืœืžื” ืœื ืœื”ื™ื•ืช ืžื•ื›ื ื™ื ืขื 20 ืฆื™ื˜ื•ื˜ื™ื ืขืœ ื”ื‘ืœืชื™ ื ืžื ืข

ืขื•ื“ ื“ื‘ืจื™ื ืžืขื ื™ื™ื ื™ื:

ื”ืจืงืœื™ื˜ื•ืก ืขืœ ืœืžื” ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื›ื ืก ืœืื•ืชื• ื ื”ืจ ืคืขืžื™ื™ื, ื•ืื•ืœื™ ืืคื™ืœื• ื’ื ืœื ืคืขื ืื—ืช

ืขืœ ืžืฆื™ืื•ืช ืฉื ืžืฆืืช ื‘ืชื ื•ืขื” ืžืชืžื“ืช ื•ืขืœ ืœืžื” ืื™ ืืคืฉืจ ืœื”ื›ื ืก ืœืื•ืชื• ื ื”ืจ ืืคื™ืœื• ืคืขื ืื—ืช

ื”ืงืฉืจ ื”ืกืžื•ื™ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืื™ืฉื” ื•ื”ื ื—ืฉ? ืžืฉืžืขื•ืช ื”ืฉื ื—ื•ื” ื‘ืกื™ืคื•ืจ ื’ืŸ ื”ืขื“ืŸ

ืžื” ื”ืงืฉืจ ื‘ื™ืŸ ื”ืฉื ืฉืœ ื—ื•ื” ื•ื”ื ื—ืฉ? ื•ืœืžื” ืื ื—ื ื• ื›ื•ืœื ื• ืฆืจื™ื›ื™ื ืœื”ื•ื“ื•ืช ืœื” ืขื“ ืขืฆื ื”ื™ื•ื ื”ื–ื”? ืžืฉืžืขื•ื™ื•ืช ื”ืฉื ื—ื•ื”